Gaia Grant © 2000
For
many years now, visitors have been drawn to Bali by the colourful
culture and the fabulous tropical environment. What makes this island paradise
particularly fascinating, however, is the enduring quality of the culture, and
the way it expresses a harmony with nature. All around the world, Bali is
unique as having the last dominant and still intact spiritual culture. Many of
the traditional rituals and practices are just as alive today as they ever
were, and the incredible strength and resilience of the Balinese people and
their culture is a testimony to the richness of their faith. It is a
fascinating exercise to delve into the past and discover some of the ancient
origins of today's practices, to discover how Bali has become what it is today.
Looking
back to Bali's historical roots, it is difficult to put together complete
chronicles, since factual evidence has not been as clearly collected and
documented as have religious details. At some stage in the past, however, an
indigenous people populated the island. The descendents of these people, who
now identify themselves as the Bali Aga, practiced
animism. Even today the Aga people continue to
worship the spirits of nature unaffected by the predominant Hindu religion, and
Aga people now live only in the villages of Tenganan and Trunyan.
The
earliest stone implements discovered on the island were found near Trunyan, possibly the work of Homo erectus people believed
to have lived around 300,000 BC. Since little is known of the Balinese's stone age ancestors, however, any deeper exploration into
the past usually starts with the bronze age. Bali's current
dependence on rice cultivation most probably originated in this period. Ritual
bronze objects, weaving, and dry rice cultivation were the legacies of the bronze age, and most likely came from people who sailed down
from the north more than 3000 years ago, or around 1000 BC.
By
300 BC, historical records were being kept, which identify a more advanced and organised agrarian society. By then complex irrigation
systems fed cascading rice terraces in wet rice cultivation. At this time rice
was already well and truly established as the major food commodity in Bali, and
as its abundance and importance increased, so did its value. Dewi Sri, the
ancient rice goddess, was revered then as she still is today through cili figures given as offerings. Based on the large yields
of rice crops, communities became more and more wealthy and developed into more
sophisticated kingdoms, each with ruling rajahs.
One
of the most dramatic and enduring developments in Bali's history came about
when a form of Hinduism which had been introduced to Java was transported to
and widely accepted in Bali in the first century. This religion was, in fact, a
fascinating mix of Siwa Hinduism and Mahayana
Buddhism, both originally from India and brought to Indonesia by Indian
traders. The climax of its success in Java came with the rise of the Majapahit Empire, but these Majapahits
were eventually forced further east to Bali as the Muslim religion gained
followers throughout Sumatra and Java. Some Javanese shamanism was thrown in en
route, and by the time this religion reached Bali it eventually quite naturally
merged with Bali's own form of animism. The foreign religion was welcomed
enthusiastically by the Balinese, who saw it as a further step to civilisation. Any discussion of arts or architecture in
Bali now usually refers to the "before Majapahit"
period, which is distinguished by its primitive simplicity, or "after Majapahit" which is much more elaborate and detailed.
The
Balinese initially resisted the arrival of the new religion strongly, however,
when the Majapahits first invaded Bali in 1343. Gajah Mada, head of the Majapahit empire, had an extremely
tough opponent in the Balinese king, Dalem Bedaulu. The king ruled from Pejeng,
now a simple village east of Ubud, and this is where
much of the action took place. The king was so stubborn in his resistence that he became known by the Majapahits
as "Pig-head". Stories which embellish events related to the king's
incredible determination and skill have survived, and he is now known,
literally, as the king with the pig's head and magical powers. Gaja Mada eventually overcame the
strong king, and has been accepted as a hero and great holy man ever since.
Up
until the 15th century, the Majapahit
kingdom maintained dominance in the area we now know as South East Asia, and
Bali was an influential province. As the links between the mother religion and
her offshoot in Bali slowly dissolved over time and due to distance, indigenous
beliefs resurfaced.
European
contact with Indonesia originated with Marco Polo's visit in AD 1290, and after
this time a demand for spices and Indonesia's other natural resources grew. Travellers from Spain and Portugal then continued to return
to Indonesia and visited Bali for the next 200 years, although the difficulty
of entering and anchoring in Bali made it a less popular destination.
By
AD 1600, the Dutch East Indies company had been set up
in Java. Bali was declared as "New Holland" by a Dutch Admiral, who
was warmly welcomed by the King at the time, Watu Renggong. With the death of this king, though, the seat of
power in Klungkung diminished in importance and
independent rule was established by local rajas.
At
around the same time, the Majapahit empire in Java disintegrated completely, and there was a
sudden influx of Hindu refugees into Bali. Intellectuals and artists, priests
and princes, soldiers and artisans all arrived in Bali with their precious
books and records. Bali flourished with the sudden injection of creative ideas
and skills, and the culture developed significantly. By the time the 19th
century had begun, Bali was still an isolated island relatively unaffected by
the west, with its unique ever evolving culture still intact.
The
British East India Company introduced some opportunities for self-government to
Bali in the early 1800s, after Holland's influence decreased as a result of the
Napoleonic wars. When the Dutch returned to Indonesia and tried to gain
sovereignty of Bali in the early 1840s, trouble flared. After sixty years, a
mass suicide of Balinese families finally ended what had developed into an
ongoing dispute. Rather than giving in the the Dutch,
ceremonial knives were used by the rajas and their families to end their misery
and make a proud statement. Holland relented, and Bali survived the immmediate threat of European influence.
The
quiet period from the early to mid 1900s brought a different type of western
influence, though, with a sudden influx of tourists. During this period,
foreigners were already being drawn to the exotic beauty of the island and its
people. Cruise ships made Bali a regular stopover, and more and more people
became intrigued by this endearing paradise. Many visitors also chose to settle
on the island at this time, including the famous German painter Walter Spies.
Two
major incidents interrupted this peaceful period. Firstly, the Japanese invaded
and occupied the island, although again the authentic Balinese culture
survived. Secondly, when the Dutch tried once more to exert their influence
after the war, Indonesia's President Sukarno declared independence in 1945. It
took a further four years, before the Dutch finally accepted the authority of
the new government, and even after that Indonesia remained unsettled. Bali also
suffered from individual disasters, a plague, a period of chronic food
shortage, and a volcanic eruption.
Bali
only opened up to tourists again in the late 1960s, when the new President recognised the value of the island as a tourist
destination. Since then it has been heavily promoted for its tourist value, and
has also quite naturally acted as a magnet to the many types of tourists who
enjoy Bali. Artists, surfers and backpackers; divers, shoppers
and adventurers; a whole range of visitors now appreciate the many facets of
the Balinese environment and culture.
Even
on the brink of the 21st century, Bali is proving that the unique
spiritual forces which have shaped the island will continue to act as major
determining influences well into the future. Every time a small canang offering laden with incense and coloured
flowers is laid on the ground, every time a chisel strikes soft wood and carves
out the features on a mythological creature, every time a young baby touches
the ground for the first time or ashes are offered to the sea… evidence of
Bali's living traditions are everywhere, acting as constant reminders of her
passion for an authentic existence.
If
we, as visitors to Bali, can share but a small taste of this passion, our own
lives will be enriched. And if we can also give something in return, in the way
of respecting these people and their culture and supporting them as they find
there way into the future, the benefits will be mutual. Let's make the most of
our time in
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